List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions
This article is a list of volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Holocene, and Pleistocene eruptions of the Decade Volcanoes (Avachinsky-Koryaksky, Kamchatka; Colima, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt; Mount Etna, Sicily; Galeras, Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone; Mauna Loa, Hawaii; Mount Merapi, Central Java; Mount Nyiragongo, East African Rift; Mount Rainier, Washington; Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture; Santamaria/ Santiaguito, Central America Volcanic Arc; Santorini, Cyclades; Taal Volcano, Luzon Volcanic Arc; Teide, Canary Islands; Ulawun, New Britain; Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture; Mount Vesuvius, Naples); Campania, Italy; South Aegean Volcanic Arc; Laguna de Bay, Luzon Volcanic Arc; Mount Pinatubo, Luzon Volcanic Arc; Toba, Sunda Arc; Mount Meager, Garibaldi Volcanic Belt; Yellowstone hotspot, Wyoming; and Taupo Volcanic Zone, greater than VEI 4.
The eruptions in the Holocene on the link: Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka were not added yet, but they are listed on the Peter L. Ward's supplemental table.[1] Some of the eruptions are not listed on the Global Volcanism Program timetable as well, at least not as VEI 6. The timetables of Global Volcanism Program;[2] Bristlecone pine tree-rings (Pinus longaeva, Pinus aristata, Pinus ponderosa, Pinus edulis, Pseudotsuga menziesii);[3] the 4 ka Yamal Peninsula Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) chronology;[4] the 7 ka Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) chronology from Finish Lapland;[5][6] GISP2 ice core;[7][8] GRIP ice core;[9] Dye 3 ice core;[9] Bipolar comparison;[10] Antarctic ice core (Bunder and Cole-Dai, 2003);[11] Antarctic ice core (Cole-Dai et al., 1997);[12] Crête ice core, in central Greenland,[13] benthic foraminifera in deep sea sediment cores (Lisiecki, Raymo 2005),[14] do not agree with each other sometimes. The 536–547 AD dust-veil event might be an impact event.[3][15]
Holocene eruptions
The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP,[16] (10 000 14C years ago)
Since 1000 AD
- Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, Jun 15; VEI 6; 6 to 16 cubic kilometres (1.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra;[2] an estimated 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted[17]
- Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, Jun 6; VEI 6; 13 to 15 cubic kilometres (3.1 to 3.6 cu mi) of lava[18][19][20]
- Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1902, Oct 24; VEI 6; 20 cubic kilometres (4.8 cu mi) of tephra[21]
- Mount Tarawera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 1886, Jun 10; VEI 5; 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI 6; 21 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[22]
- Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI 7; 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of tephra;[2] an estimated 200 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer"[23]
- 1809–10 ice core event; an unknown eruption at a near-equatorial location and a magnitude roughly half that of Tambora, emission of sulfur dioxide around the amount of the 1815 Tambora eruption (ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland).[24] In the year 1808, there were also major eruptions in Urzelina, Azores (Urzelina eruption, fissure vent), Klyuchevskoy, Kamchatka Peninsula,[25] and Taal, Philippines.[26]
- Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI 6; 14 cubic kilometres of lava, an estimated 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere.[28]
- Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI 6; 30 cubic kilometers (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Kolumbo, Santorini, Greece; 1650, Sep 27; VEI 6; 60 cubic kilometers (14.4 cu mi) of tephra[29]
- Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, Feb 19; VEI 6; 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[30]
- Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI 6; 14 cubic kilometres (3.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Bárðarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI 6; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- 1452–53 ice core event, New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain; only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96 cubic kilometres (8.6 to 23.0 cu mi) of tephra; 175-700 million tons of sulfuric acid[31][32][33]
- Mount Tarawera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 1310 ±12; VEI 5; 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) of tephra (Kaharoa eruption)[2]
- Quilotoa, Ecuador; 1280(?); VEI 6; 21 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- 1258 ice core event, tropics; 200 to 800 cubic kilometers (48.0 to 191.9 cu mi) of tephra[34]
1 to 1000 AD
- Changbai Mountains (Changbaishan), Eastern China/ North Korea border; Tianchi eruption of the Baekdu Mountain; 969 AD ±20 years;[35] VEI 7; 76 to 116 cubic kilometers (18.2 to 27.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Eldgjá eruption, Laki system, Iceland; 934-940 AD; VEI 4; an estimated 18 cubic kilometres (4.3 cu mi) of lava poured out of the earth,[36] an estimated 219 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted[37]
- Ceboruco, Northwest of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt; 930 AD ±200; VEI 6; 11 cubic kilometres (2.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Dakataua, Northern tip of the Willaumez Peninsula, New Britain, Papua New Guinea; 800 AD ±50; VEI 6?; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi)? of tephra[2]
- Pago, East of Kimbe, New Britain, Papua New Guinea; Witori Caldera; 710 AD ±75; VEI 6; 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Churchill, eastern Alaska; 700 AD ±200; VEI 6; 20 cubic kilometres (4.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Rabaul, Rabaul Caldera, New Britain; 540 AD ±100; VEI 6; 11 cubic kilometres (2.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Ilopango, El Salvador; 450 AD ±30; VEI 6; 71 cubic kilometres (17 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Ksudach, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 240 AD ±l00; VEI 6; 20 to 26 cubic kilometers (4.8 to 6.2 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Hatepe eruption of Taupo Volcano, New Zealand; 230 AD ±16; VEI 7; 120 cubic kilometres (29 cu mi) of tephra[38]
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy; 79 AD Oct 24 (?); VEI 5?; 2.8 to 3.8 cubic kilometers (0.7 to 0.9 cu mi) of tephra (Pompeii eruption)[2][39][40]
- Mount Churchill, eastern Alaska; 60 AD ±200; VEI 6; 25 cubic kilometres (6.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Ambrym, Vanuatu; 50 AD ±100; VEI 6; 6 to 8 cubic kilometers (1.4 to 1.9 cu mi) of tephra[2]
Before the Common Era (BC/BCE)
- Apoyeque, Nicaragua; 50 BC ±100; VEI 6; 18 cubic kilometres (4.3 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Okmok, Okmok Caldera, Aleutian Islands; 100 BC ±50; VEI 6; 4 to 6 cubic kilometers (1.0 to 1.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Raoul Island, Kermadec Islands, New Zealand; 250 BC ±75; VEI 6; more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Meager, Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, Canada; 400 BC ±50; VEI 5
- Mount Tongariro, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 550 BC ±200; VEI 5; 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1050 BC ±500; VEI 6; 10 to 16 cubic kilometers (2.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Avachinsky, Kamchatka; 1350 BC (?); VEI 5; more than 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi) of tephra (tephra layer IIAV3)[2]
- Pago, east of Kimbe, New Britain, Papua New Guinea; Witori Caldera; 1370 BC ±100; VEI 6; 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Taupo, New Zealand; 1460 BC ±40; VEI 6; 17 cubic kilometres (4.1 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Avachinsky, Kamchatka; 1500 BC (?); VEI 5; more than 3.6 cubic kilometres (0.86 cu mi) of tephra (tephra layer AV1)[2]
- Santorini (Thera), Greece; Youngest Caldera; Minoan eruption; 1610 BC ±14 years; VEI 7; 99 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of tephra;[2] ending the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri and the Minoan age on Crete
- Mount Aniakchak, Alaska Peninsula; 1645 BC ±10; VEI 6; more than 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Veniaminof, Alaska Peninsula; 1750 BC (?); VEI 6; more than 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount St. Helens, Washington, USA; 1860 BC (?); VEI 6; 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Hudson, Cerro, Southern Chile; 1890 BC (?); VEI 6; more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Black Peak, Alaska Peninsula; 1900 BC ±150; VEI 6; 10 to 50 cubic kilometers (2.4 to 12.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 2040 BC ± 100; VEI 6; more than 11 cubic kilometres (2.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy; 2420 BC ±40; VEI 5?; 3.9 cubic kilometres (0.94 cu mi) of tephra (Avellino eruption)[2][39][40][41]
- Avachinsky, Kamchatka; 3200 BC ±150; VEI 5; more than 1.1 cubic kilometres (0.26 cu mi) of tephra (tephra layer IAv20; AV3)[2]
- Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 3550 BC (?); VEI 6; 10 to 16 cubic kilometers (2.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Talisay (Taal) caldera (size: 15 x 20 km), island of Luzon, Philippines; 3580 BC ±200; VEI 6; 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Haroharo Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 3580 BC ±50; VEI 5; 2.8 cubic kilometres (0.67 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Pago, New Britain; 4000 BC ± 200; VEI 6?; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi)? of tephra[2]
- Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua; 4050 BC (?); VEI 6; more than 13 cubic kilometres (3.1 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Avachinsky, Kamchatka; 4340 BC ±75; VEI 5; more than 1.3 cubic kilometres (0.31 cu mi) of tephra (tephra layer IAv12; AV4)[2]
- Kikai Caldera (size: 19 km), Nansei Islands, Japan; Akahoya eruption; 4350 BC (?); VEI 7; 80 to 220 cubic kilometers (19.2 to 52.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Macauley Island, Kermadec Islands, New Zealand; 4360 BC ±200; VEI 6; 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi)? of tephra[2][42]
- Mount Hudson, Cerro, Southern Chile; 4750 BC (?); VEI 6; 18 cubic kilometres (4.3 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Aniakchak, Alaska Peninsula; 5250 BC ±1000; VEI 6; 10 to 50 cubic kilometers (2.4 to 12.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mashu, Hokkaido, Japan; 5550 BC ±100; VEI 6; 19 cubic kilometres (4.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Tao-Rusyr Caldera, Kuril Islands; 5550 BC ±75; VEI 6; 30 to 36 cubic kilometers (7.2 to 8.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mayor Island/Tuhua, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 5060 BC ±200; VEI 5; 1.6 cubic kilometres (0.38 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Crater Lake (Mount Mazama), Oregon, USA; 5677 BC ±150; VEI 7; 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Khangar, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 5700 BC ± 16; VEI 6; 14 to 16 cubic kilometers (3.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Crater Lake (Mount Mazama), Oregon, USA; 5900 BC ± 50; VEI 6; 8 to 28 cubic kilometers (1.9 to 6.7 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Avachinsky, Kamchatka; 5980 BC ±100; VEI 5; more than 8 to 10 cubic kilometers (1.9 to 2.4 cu mi) of tephra (tephra layer IAv1)[2]
- Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 6050 BC (?); VEI 6; 70 cubic kilometres (17 cu mi)? of tephra[2]
- Haroharo Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 6060 BC ±50; VEI 5; 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Sakurajima, island of Kyūshū, Japan; Aira Caldera; 6200 BC ±1000; VEI 6; 12 cubic kilometres (2.9 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Kurile Caldera (size: 8 x 14 km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 6440 BC ± 25 years; VEI 7; 140 to 180 cubic kilometers (33.6 to 43.2 cu mi) of tephra (Ilinsky eruption)[2]
- Karymsky, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 6600 BC (?); VEI 6; 50 to 350 cubic kilometers (12.0 to 84.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy; 6940 BC ±100; VEI 5?; 2.75 to 2.85 cubic kilometers (0.7 to 0.7 cu mi) of tephra (Mercato eruption)[2][39][40]
- Unimak Island, Fisher Caldera, Aleutian Islands; 7420 BC ±200; VEI 6; more than 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 7460 BC ±150; VEI 6?[2]
- Lvinaya Past, Kuril Islands; 7480 BC ±50; VEI 6; 7 to 8 cubic kilometers (1.7 to 1.9 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Rotoma Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 7560 BC ±18; VEI 5; more than 5.6 cubic kilometres (1.3 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Taupo Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 8130 BC ±200; VEI 5; 4.7 cubic kilometres (1.1 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Grimsvotn, Northeastern Iceland; 8230 BC ±50; VEI 6; more than 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Ulreung, Korea; 8750 BC (?); VEI 6; more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Tongariro, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 9450 BC (?); VEI 5; 1.7 cubic kilometres (0.41 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Taupo Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 9460 BC ±200; VEI 5; 1.4 cubic kilometres (0.34 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Mount Tongariro, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand; 9650 BC (?); VEI 5; 1.6 cubic kilometres (0.38 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Nevado de Toluca, State of Mexico, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt; 10.5 ka; VEI 6; 14 cubic kilometres (3.4 cu mi) of tephra (Upper Toluca Pumice )[2][43]
- 11.258 ka; GISP2 ice core event[1]
Pleistocene eruptions
2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.
- 12.657 ka; GISP2 ice core event[1]
- Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.900 ka; VEI 6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4 cu mi) of tephra.[44][45][46][47]
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy; 16 ka; VEI 5; (Green Pumice)[39][40]
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy; 18.3 ka; VEI 6; (Basal Pumice)[39][40]
- Santorini (Thera), Greece; Cape Riva Caldera; about 21 ka[2]
- Aira Caldera, south of the island of Kyūshū, Japan; about 22 ka; VEI 7; more than 400 cubic kilometers (96.0 cu mi) of tephra.[48]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Oruanui eruption, Taupo volcano, New Zealand, around 24.5 ka in the Late Pleistocene, VEI 8; generated approximately 1,170 cubic kilometers (280.7 cu mi) of tephra.[49][50][51][52]
- Laguna Caldera (size: 10 x 20 km), South-East of Manila, island of Luzon; 27-29 ka[2]
- Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 39.280 ka ± 0.11;[53] 200 cubic kilometres of lava (Campanian Tuff) [1]
- Galeras, Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone, Colombian department of Nariño; 40 ka; 2 cubic kilometers (0.5 cu mi) of tephra
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Rotoiti Ignimbrite, North Island, New Zealand; VEI 7; about 50 ka, about 240 cubic kilometers (57.6 cu mi) of tephra.[54]
- Santorini (Thera), Greece; Skaros Caldera; about 70 ka[2]
- Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; 73 ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7 cu mi) of tephra; probably 6,000 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).[17][55][56][57][58]
- Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera; between 70 and 150 ka; 1,000 cubic kilometers (239.9 cu mi) intracaldera rhyolitic lava flows.[2]
- Galeras, Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone, Colombian department of Nariño; 150 ka; 2 cubic kilometers (0.5 cu mi) of tephra
- Kos-Nisyros Caldera, Greece; 161 ka; 110 km3 (26 cu mi) of Kos Plateau Tuff.[1]
- Taal Caldera, island of Luzon, Philippines; 25–30 km caldera formed by four explosive eruptions between 500 and 100 ka
- Santorini (Thera), Greece; Southern Caldera; about 180 ka[2]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Rotorua Caldera (size: 22 km wide), New Zealand; 220 ka; more than 340 cubic kilometers (81.6 cu mi) of tephra.[1]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Maroa Caldera (size: 16 x 25 km), New Zealand; 230 ka; 140 cubic kilometers (33.6 cu mi) of tephra.[1]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Reporoa Caldera (size: 10 x 15 km), New Zealand; 230 ka; VEI 7; around 100 cubic kilometers (24.0 cu mi) of tephra[2]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Whakamaru Caldera (size: 30 x 40 km), North Island, New Zealand; around 254 ka; VEI 8; 1,200 to 2,000 cubic kilometers (288 to 480 cu mi) of tephra (Whakamaru Ignimbrite/Mount Curl Tephra)[59][60]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Matahina Ignimbrite, Haroharo Caldera, North Island, New Zealand; VEI 7; 280 ka; about 120 cubic kilometers (28.8 cu mi) of tephra.[61]
- Sabatini volcanic complex, Sabatini, Italy; 374 ka; more than 200 cubic kilometers (48 cu mi) of Morphi tephra.[1]
- Roccamonfina Caldera (size: 65 x 55 km), Roccamonfina, Italy; 385 ka; 100 to 125 cubic kilometers (24.0 to 30.0 cu mi) of tephra.[1]
- Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia; 501 ka ±5 (Middle Toba Tuff)[57]
- Galeras, Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone, Colombian department of Nariño; 560 ka; 15 cubic kilometers (3.6 cu mi) of tephra
- Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85 km); 640 ka; VEI 8; more than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff)[2]
- Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia; 840 ka ±30 (Oldest Toba Tuff)[57]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Mangakino Caldera, North Island, New Zealand; 0.97 Ma; more than 300 cubic kilometers (72.0 cu mi) Rocky Hill Ignimbrite[1]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Mangakino Caldera, North Island, New Zealand; 1.01 Ma; more than 300 cubic kilometers (72.0 cu mi) Unit E[1]
- Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia; 1.2 ±0.16 Ma (Haranggoal Dacite Tuff)[57]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Mangakino Caldera, North Island, New Zealand; 1.23 Ma; more than 300 cubic kilometers (72.0 cu mi) Ongatit Ignimbrite[1][62]
- Yellowstone hotspot; Henry's Fork Caldera (size: 16 km wide); 1.3 Ma; VEI 7; 280 cubic kilometers (67.2 cu mi) of Mesa Falls Tuff.[2]
- Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50 km); 2.1 Ma; VEI 8; 2,450 cubic kilometers (588 cu mi) of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff.[1][2]
Notes
- Iceland has four volcanic zones: Reykjanes (Mid-Atlantic Ridge),[63] West and North Volcanic Zones (RVZ, WVZ, NVZ) and the East Volcanic Zone (EVZ). The Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) connects them across central Iceland. There are two intraplate belts too (Öræfajökull (ÖVB) and Snæfellsnes (SVB)).
- Iceland's East Volcanic Zone: the central volcanoes of Vonarskard and Hágöngur belong to the same volcanic system; this also applies to Bárðarbunga and Hamarinn, and Grímsvötn and Þórðarhyrna.[64][65][66]
- Laki is part of a volcanic system, centering on the Grímsvötn volcano (Long NE-SW-trending fissure systems, including Laki, extend from the central volcano).[2]
- The Eldgjá canyon and the Katla volcano form another volcanic system. Although the Eldgjá canyon and the Laki fissure are very near from each other, lava from the Katla and the Hekla volcanic systems result in transitional alkalic basalts and lava from the central volcanoes result in tholeiitic basalts.
- The central volcano of Bárðarbunga, the Veidivötn and Trollagigar fissures form one volcanic system, which extend about 100 km SW to near Torfajökull volcano and 50 km NE to near Askja volcano, respectively. The subglacial Loki-Fögrufjöll volcanic system located SW of Bárðarbunga volcano is also part of the Bárðarbunga volcanic system and contains two subglacial ridges extending from the largely subglacial Hamarinn central volcano (15 km southwest of Bárðarbunga); the Loki ridge trends to the NE and the Fögrufjöll ridge to the SW.[2]
- New Zealand, North Island, Taupo Volcanic Zone:
- The following Volcanic Centers belong to the Taupo Volcanic Zone: Rotorua, Okataina, Maroa, Taupo, Tongariro and Mangakino.[67] It includes Mangakino volcano, Reporoa Caldera, Mount Tarawera, Mount Ruapehu, Mount Tongariro and White Island. The Taupo Volcanic Zone forms a southern portion of the active Lau-Havre-Taupo back-arc basin, which lies behind the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone (Hikurangi Trough - Kermadec Trench - Tonga Trench).[68] Some lakes in the area: Taupo, Rotorua, Rotomahana, and Rerewhakaaitu. Lake Okataina, Lake Tarawera, Lake Rotokakahi (Green Lake), Lake Tikitapu (Blue Lake), Lake Okareka, and Lake Rotoiti lie within the Okataina Caldera.
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, the Mangakino Volcanic Center is the westernmost and oldest rhyolitic caldera volcano in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Mangakino is a town too.[69]
- Taupo Volcanic Zone, Maroa Volcanic Center. The Maroa Caldera formed in the Northeast corner of the Whakamaru Caldera. The Whakamaru Caldera partially overlaps with the Taupo Caldera on the South. The Orakeikorako, Ngatamariki, Rotokaua, and Wairakei hydrothermal areas are located within or adjacent to the Whakamaru caldera. Whakamaru is a town too.[2]
- The oldest volcanic zone in the North Island is the Northland Region, then the Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ), then the Mangakino caldera complex and the Kapenga Caldera and then the rest of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ).
- Santorini, South Aegean Volcanic Arc. The southern Aegean is one of the most rapidly deforming regions of the Himalayan-Alpine mountain belt (Alpide belt).[70]
- The twin volcanoes of Nindirí and Masaya lie within the massive Pleistocene Las Sierras pyroclastic shield volcano.[2]
- There are two peaks in the Colima volcano complex: Nevado de Colima (4,330 m), which is older and inactive, lies 5 km north of the younger and very active 3,860 m Volcán de Colima (also called Volcán de Fuego de Colima).
- The largely submarine Kuwae Caldera cuts the flank of the Late Pleistocene or Holocene Tavani Ruru volcano, the submarine volcano Karua lies near the northern rim of Kuwae Caldera.[2]
- Bismarck volcanic arc, the Rabaul Caldera includes the sub-vent of Tavurvur and the sub-vent of Vulcan.
- Bismarck volcanic arc, Pago volcano, New Britain, Papua New Guinea, is a young post-caldera cone within the Witori Caldera. The Buru Caldera cuts the SW flank of the Witori volcano.[2]
- Sakurajima, Kyūshū, Japan, is a volcano of the Aira Caldera.
- The Mount Unzen volcanic complex, East of Nagasaki, Japan, comprises three large stratovolcanoes with complex structures, Kinugasa on the North, Fugen-dake at the East-center, and Kusenbu on the South.
Nomenclature
Each state/ country seem to have a slightly different approach, but there is an order:
- Craton, and then Province as sections or regions of a craton.
- First: volcanic arc, volcanic belt and volcanic zone.
- Second: volcanic area, caldera cluster and caldera complex.
- Third: volcanic field, volcanic system and volcanic center.
- A volcanic field is a localized area of the Earth's crust that is prone to localized volcanic activity.
-
- A volcanic group (aka a volcanic complex) is a collection of related volcanoes or volcanic landforms.
- Neutral: volcanic cluster and volcanic locus.
In the Basin and Range Province the volcanic fields are nested. The McDermit volcanic field, is also named Orevada rift volcanic field. The Latir-Questa volcanic locus and the Taos Plateau volcanic field seem to be in a similar area. The Southwest Nevada volcanic field, the Crater Flat-Lunar Crater volcanic zone, the Central Nevada volcanic field, the Indian Peak volcanic field and the Marysvale volcanic field seem to have no transition between each other; the Ocate volcanic field is also known as the Mora volcanic field; and the Red Hill volcanic field is also known as Quemado volcanic field.
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces". Teton Tectonics. http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm Large Holocene Eruptions
- ^ a b Salzer, Matthew W.; Malcolm K. Hughes (2007). "Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr". Quaternary Research 67: 57–68. Bibcode 2007QuRes..67...57S. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004. http://media.longnow.org/files/2/Salzer_Hughes_2007.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-18.
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